Fix list indentation.

author: Sadeep Madurange <sadeep@asciimx.com> 2025-12-08 17:34:35 +0800
committer: Sadeep Madurange <sadeep@asciimx.com> 2025-12-08 21:05:19 +0800
commit: 752a06ec0ebf20d6232b13f1ea53fe21fefcefbd (patch)
tree: 690411afad8eb76216417a42de94135214cb2401 /_site/blog
parent: 20b0a045a7dc78f9728837fe5a1be8cf12caae4e (diff)
download: www-752a06ec0ebf20d6232b13f1ea53fe21fefcefbd.tar.gz
16 files changed, 1215 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/_site/blog/arduino-due/connections.jpeg b/_site/blog/arduino-due/connections.jpeg
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diff --git a/_site/blog/arduino-due/index.html b/_site/blog/arduino-due/index.html
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+<!DOCTYPE html>
+<html>
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8">
+    <title>How to set up ATSAM3X8E microcontrollers for bare-metal programming in C</title>
+
+    <head>
+  <meta charset="utf-8">
+  <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1">
+  <title>How to set up ATSAM3X8E microcontrollers for bare-metal programming in C</title>
+  <link rel="stylesheet" href="/assets/css/main.css">
+  <link rel="stylesheet" href="/assets/css/skeleton.css">
+</head>
+
+
+
+  </head>
+  <body>
+
+    <div id="nav-container" class="container">
+  <ul id="navlist" class="left">
+    
+    <li >
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+</div>
+
+
+
+    <main>
+      <div class="container">
+        <div class="container-2">
+          <h2 class="center" id="title">HOW TO SET UP ATSAM3X8E MICROCONTROLLERS FOR BARE-METAL PROGRAMMING IN C</h2>
+          <h6 class="center">05 OCTOBER 2024</h5>
+          <br>
+          <div class="twocol justify"><p>This article is a step-by-step guide for programming bare-metal ATSAM3X8E chips
+found on Arduino Due boards. It also includes notes on the chip’s memory layout
+relevant for writing linker scripts. The steps described in this article were
+tested on an OpenBSD workstation.</p>
+
+<h2 id="toolchain">Toolchain</h2>
+
+<p>To interact directly with a bare-metal ATSAM3X8E chips, we must bypass the
+embedded bootloader. To do that, we need a hardware programmer capable of
+communicating with the chip over the Serial Wire Debug (SWD) protocol. Since
+the workstation we upload the program from presumably doesn’t speak SWD, the
+hardware programmer acts as a SWD-USB adapter. The <a href="https://www.st.com/en/development-tools/st-link-v2.html" class="external" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">ST-LINK/V2</a> programmer fits this
+bill.</p>
+
+<p>The <a href="https://openocd.org/" class="external" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">OpenOCD</a> on-chip debugger software supports
+ATSAM3X8E chips. OpenOCD, on startup, runs a telnet server that we can connect to
+to issue commands to the ATSAM3X8E chip. OpenOCD translates plain-text commands
+into the binary sequences the chip understands, and sends them over the wire.</p>
+
+<p>Finally, we need the <a href="https://developer.arm.com/Tools%20and%20Software/GNU%20Toolchain" class="external" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">ARM GNU Compiler
+Toolchain</a> to compile C programs for the chip. The ARM GNU compiler
+toolchain and OpenOCD, as a consequence of being free software, are available 
+on every conceivable platform, including OpenBSD.</p>
+
+<h2 id="electrical-connections">Electrical connections</h2>
+
+<p>The following photos illustrate the electrical connections between the Arduino
+Due, PC, and the ST-LINK/V2 programmer required to transfer a compiled program
+from a PC to the MCU.</p>
+
+<table style="border: none; width: 100%;">
+  <tr style="border: none;">
+    <td style="border: none; width: 50%; vertical-align: top; background-color: transparent;">
+      <img src="schematic.png" alt="Pinout" style="width: 100%" />
+      <p style="text-align: center;">Wiring</p>
+    </td>
+    <td style="border: none; width: 50%; vertical-align: top; background-color: transparent;">
+      <img src="connections.jpeg" alt="Circuit" style="width: 100%" />
+      <p style="text-align: center;">Arduino Due</p>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Arduino Due exposes the ATSAM3X8E’s SWD interface via its DEBUG port. The
+ST-LINK/v2 programmer connects to that to communicate with the chip.</p>
+
+<h2 id="uploading-the-program">Uploading the program</h2>
+
+<p>The source.tar.gz tarball at the end of this page contains a sample C program
+(the classic LED blink program) with OpenOCD configuration and linker scripts.
+First, use the following command to build it:</p>
+
+<div class="language-plaintext highlighter-rouge"><div class="highlight"><pre class="highlight"><code>$ arm-none-eabi-gcc -mcpu=cortex-m3 -mthumb -T script.ld \
+    -nostartfiles \
+    -nostdlib \
+    -o a.elf main.c
+</code></pre></div></div>
+
+<p>Then, open a telnet session with OpenOCD and issue the following sequence of
+commands to configure the chip and upload the compiled program to it:</p>
+
+<div class="language-plaintext highlighter-rouge"><div class="highlight"><pre class="highlight"><code>$ openocd -f openocd-due.cfg
+$ telnet localhost 4444
+  &gt; halt
+  &gt; at91sam3 gpnvm show
+  &gt; at91sam3 gpnvm set 1
+  &gt; at91sam3 gpnvm show
+$ openocd -f openocd-due.cfg -c "program a.elf verify reset exit"
+</code></pre></div></div>
+
+<p>The first of the above commands starts OpenOCD. In the telnet session, the
+first command halts the chip in preparation for receiving commands. Next, we
+inspect the current GPNVM bit setting (more on this later). If the bit is unset
+(the gpnvm show command returns 0), we set it to 1 and verify the update.</p>
+
+<p>The final command, issued from outside the telnet session, uploads the program
+to the chip. Those are the bare minimum set of commands required to program the
+chip. The AT91SAM3 flash driver section of the OpenOCD manual lists all
+available commands for the ATSAM3X8E chip.</p>
+
+<h2 id="gpnvm-bits">GPNVM bits</h2>
+
+<p>By design, ARM chips boot into address 0x00000. ATSAM3X8E’s memory consists of
+a ROM and a dual-banked flash (flash0 and flash1), residing in different
+locations of the chip’s address space. The GPNVM bits control which of them
+maps to 0x00000. When GPNVM1 is cleared (the default), the chip boots from the ROM,
+which contains Atmel’s SAM-BA bootloader.</p>
+
+<p>Conversely, when the GPNVM1 bit is 1 (and the GPNVM2 bit is 0), flash0 at
+address 0x80000 maps to 0x00000. When both GPNVM bits are 0, flash1 maps to
+0x00000. Since we place our program in flash0 in the linker script, we set the
+GPNVM1 bit and leave the GPNVM2 bit unchanged to ensure the chip
+executes our program instead of the embedded bootloader at startup.</p>
+
+<h2 id="linker-script">Linker script</h2>
+
+<p>At a minimum, the linker script must place the vector table at the first
+address of the flash. This is mandatory for ARM chips unless we relocate the
+vector table using the VTOR register.</p>
+
+<p>The first entry of the vector table must be the stack pointer. The stack
+pointer must be initializes to the highest memory location available to
+accommodate the ATSAM3X8E’s descending stack.</p>
+
+<p>The second entry of the vector table must be the reset vector. In the reset
+vector, we can perform tasks such as zeroing out memory and initializing
+registers before passing control to the main program.</p>
+
+<p>Files: <a href="source.tar.gz">source.tar.gz</a></p>
+</div>
+          <p class="post-author right">by W. D. Sadeep Madurange</p>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+    </main>
+
+    <div class="footer">
+  <div class="container">
+    <div class="twelve columns right container-2">
+      <p id="footer-text">&copy; ASCIIMX - 2025</p>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+
+  </body>
+</html>
diff --git a/_site/blog/arduino-due/schematic.png b/_site/blog/arduino-due/schematic.png
new file mode 100644
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--- /dev/null
+++ b/_site/blog/arduino-due/schematic.png
diff --git a/_site/blog/arduino-due/source.tar.gz b/_site/blog/arduino-due/source.tar.gz
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..496567b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/_site/blog/arduino-due/source.tar.gz
diff --git a/_site/blog/arduino-uno/3v3.Makefile b/_site/blog/arduino-uno/3v3.Makefile
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4ca89d4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/_site/blog/arduino-uno/3v3.Makefile
@@ -0,0 +1,46 @@
+CC = avr-gcc
+MCU = atmega328p
+PORT = /dev/cuaU0
+TARGET = app
+
+SRC = main.c
+OBJ = $(SRC:.c=.o)
+
+CFLAGS = -std=gnu99
+CFLAGS += -Os
+CFLAGS += -Wall
+CFLAGS += -mmcu=$(MCU)
+CFLAGS += -DBAUD=57600
+CFLAGS += -DF_CPU=8000000UL
+CFLAGS += -ffunction-sections -fdata-sections
+
+LDFLAGS = -mmcu=$(MCU)
+LDFLAGS += -Wl,--gc-sections
+
+HEX_FLAGS = -O ihex
+HEX_FLAGS += -j .text -j .data
+
+AVRDUDE_FLAGS = -p $(MCU)
+AVRDUDE_FLAGS += -c arduino
+AVRDUDE_FLAGS += -b 57600
+AVRDUDE_FLAGS += -P $(PORT)
+AVRDUDE_FLAGS += -D -U
+
+%.o: %.c
+	 $(CC) $(CFLAGS) -c -o $@ $<
+
+elf: $(OBJ)
+	 $(CC) $(LDFLAGS) $(OBJ) -o $(TARGET).elf
+
+hex: elf
+	 avr-objcopy $(HEX_FLAGS) $(TARGET).elf $(TARGET).hex
+
+upload: hex
+	 avrdude $(AVRDUDE_FLAGS) flash:w:$(TARGET).hex:i
+
+.PHONY: clean
+
+clean:
+	 rm -f *.o *.elf *.hex 
+
+
diff --git a/_site/blog/arduino-uno/Makefile b/_site/blog/arduino-uno/Makefile
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9db7b09
--- /dev/null
+++ b/_site/blog/arduino-uno/Makefile
@@ -0,0 +1,43 @@
+CC     = avr-gcc
+MCU    = atmega328p
+PORT   = /dev/cuaU0
+TARGET = app
+
+SRC = main.c
+OBJ = $(SRC:.c=.o)
+
+CFLAGS = -std=gnu99
+CFLAGS += -Os
+CFLAGS += -Wall
+CFLAGS += -mmcu=$(MCU)
+CFLAGS += -DBAUD=115200
+CFLAGS += -DF_CPU=16000000UL
+CFLAGS += -ffunction-sections -fdata-sections
+
+LDFLAGS = -mmcu=$(MCU)
+LDFLAGS += -Wl,--gc-sections
+
+HEX_FLAGS = -O ihex
+HEX_FLAGS += -j .text -j .data
+
+AVRDUDE_FLAGS = -p $(MCU)
+AVRDUDE_FLAGS += -c arduino
+AVRDUDE_FLAGS += -P $(PORT)
+AVRDUDE_FLAGS += -D -U
+
+%.o: %.c
+	 $(CC) $(CFLAGS) -c -o $@ $<
+
+elf: $(OBJ)
+	 $(CC) $(LDFLAGS) $(OBJ) -o $(TARGET).elf
+
+hex: elf
+	 avr-objcopy $(HEX_FLAGS) $(TARGET).elf $(TARGET).hex
+
+upload: hex
+	 avrdude $(AVRDUDE_FLAGS) flash:w:$(TARGET).hex:i
+
+.PHONY: clean
+
+clean:
+	 rm *.o *.elf *.hex 
diff --git a/_site/blog/arduino-uno/breadboard.jpeg b/_site/blog/arduino-uno/breadboard.jpeg
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diff --git a/_site/blog/arduino-uno/index.html b/_site/blog/arduino-uno/index.html
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+++ b/_site/blog/arduino-uno/index.html
@@ -0,0 +1,139 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+<html>
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8">
+    <title>How to configure ATmega328P microcontrollers to run at 3.3V and 5V</title>
+
+    <head>
+  <meta charset="utf-8">
+  <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1">
+  <title>How to configure ATmega328P microcontrollers to run at 3.3V and 5V</title>
+  <link rel="stylesheet" href="/assets/css/main.css">
+  <link rel="stylesheet" href="/assets/css/skeleton.css">
+</head>
+
+
+
+  </head>
+  <body>
+
+    <div id="nav-container" class="container">
+  <ul id="navlist" class="left">
+    
+    <li >
+      <a href="/" class="link-decor-none">hme</a>
+    </li>
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+      <div class="container">
+        <div class="container-2">
+          <h2 class="center" id="title">HOW TO CONFIGURE ATMEGA328P MICROCONTROLLERS TO RUN AT 3.3V AND 5V</h2>
+          <h6 class="center">10 APRIL 2025</h5>
+          <br>
+          <div class="twocol justify"><p>This is a quick reference for wiring up ATmega328P ICs to run at 5V and 3.3V.
+While the 5V configuration is common, the 3.3V configuration can be useful in
+low-power applications and when interfacing with parts that themselves run at
+3.3V. In this guide, the 5V setup is configured with a 16MHz crystal
+oscillator, while the 3.3V configuration makes use of an 8MHz crystal
+oscillator.</p>
+
+<p>The steps that follow refer to the following pinout.</p>
+
+<table style="border: none; width: 100%;">
+  <tr style="border: none;">
+    <td style="border: none; width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+      <img src="pinout.png" alt="Pinout" style="width: 100%" />
+      <p style="text-align: center;">Pinout</p>
+    </td>
+    <td style="border: none; width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+      <img src="breadboard.jpeg" alt="Circuit" style="width: 100%" />
+      <p style="text-align: center;">Breadboard</p>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<h2 id="5v-16mhz-configuration">5V-16MHz configuration</h2>
+
+<p>Powering ATmega328P microcontrollers with 5V is the most common setup. This is
+also how Arduino Uno boards are wired.</p>
+
+<p>In this configuration, the microcontroller’s pin 1 is connected to 5V via a
+10kΩ resistor. Pins 9 and 10 are connected to a 16MHz crystal oscillator via
+two 22pF capacitors connected to ground. The microcontroller is powered by
+connecting pins 7, 20, and 21 to a 5V DC power supply. Lastly, pins 8 and 22
+are connected to ground. In addition to the these connections, which are
+required, it’s a good idea to add 0.1μF decoupling capacitors between pins 7,
+20, and 21 and ground.</p>
+
+<p><a href="Makefile">Here’s</a> a sample Makefile for compiling C programs for ATmega328P
+microcontrollers using avr-gcc/avrdude toolchain.</p>
+
+<h2 id="33v-8mhz-configuration">3.3V-8MHz configuration</h2>
+
+<p>Electrical connections for running an ATmega328P at 3.3V are identical to that
+of the 5V circuit. The only differences are that all the 5V connections are
+replaced with a 3.3V power source and a 8MHz crystal oscillator takes the place
+of the 16MHz crystal.</p>
+
+<p>However, standard ATmega328P chips are preconfigured to run at 5V. To run one
+at 3.3V, we must first modify its fuses that control characteristics like the
+BOD level. If a bootloader that expects a 16MHz clock (e.g., Arduino
+bootloader) is pre-installed on the ATmega328P, it must be swapped with one
+that accepts an 8MHz clock. To accomplish that, we need an in-system programmer
+(ISP).</p>
+
+<p>Fortunately, we can turn an ordinary Arduino Uno board into an ISP by uploading
+the ‘ArduinoISP’ sketch found in the Arduino IDE. The ISP communicates with the
+microcontroller using a Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI). So, connect the SPI
+port of the ATmega328P to that of the Arduino Uno, and the Uno’s SS pin
+to the ATmega328P’s RESET pin.</p>
+
+<p>Power up the the ATmega328P by connecting its V<sub>CC</sub> to a 5V supply (we
+can use Arduino Uno’s 5V pin). From the Arduino IDE, select ‘ATmega328P (3.3V,
+8MHz)’ for processor from the tools menu. Also from the tools menu, select
+‘Arduino as ISP’ as programmer. Finally, upload the new bootloader by selecting
+‘Burn Bootloader’ from the tools menu.</p>
+
+<p>The ATmega328P is now ready to run at 8MHz with a 3.3V power supply. You can
+upload programs to the ATmega328P as you normally would using avrdude.
+<a href="3v3.Makefile">Here’s</a> a sample Makefile with adjusted parameters (e.g., baud
+rate) for an 8MHz clock.</p>
+
+<h2 id="remarks">Remarks</h2>
+
+<p>In both configurations, if you intend to use the ATmega328P’s analog-to-digital
+converter with the internal 1.1V or AV<sub>cc</sub> voltage as reference, do
+not connect AREF (pin 21) to V<sub>cc</sub>. Refer to section 23.5.2 in the
+datasheet for more information.</p>
+
+</div>
+          <p class="post-author right">by W. D. Sadeep Madurange</p>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+    </main>
+
+    <div class="footer">
+  <div class="container">
+    <div class="twelve columns right container-2">
+      <p id="footer-text">&copy; ASCIIMX - 2025</p>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+
+  </body>
+</html>
diff --git a/_site/blog/arduino-uno/pinout.png b/_site/blog/arduino-uno/pinout.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..59acfbc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/_site/blog/arduino-uno/pinout.png
diff --git a/_site/blog/index.html b/_site/blog/index.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c213ee5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/_site/blog/index.html
@@ -0,0 +1,129 @@
+<!doctype html>
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+        </td>
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+          <span class="post-meta">
+            <time datetime="2025-06-22 00:00:00 +0800">2025-06-22</time>
+          </span>
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+  
+    
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+      <tr>
+        <td class="posts-td posts-td-link">
+          <a href="/blog/arduino-uno/" class="link-decor-none">How to configure ATmega328P microcontrollers to run at 3.3V and 5V</a>
+        </td>
+        <td class="posts-td posts-td-time">
+          <span class="post-meta">
+            <time datetime="2025-04-10 00:00:00 +0800">2025-04-10</time>
+          </span>
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+  
+    
+  
+      <tr>
+        <td class="posts-td posts-td-link">
+          <a href="/blog/arduino-due/" class="link-decor-none">How to set up ATSAM3X8E microcontrollers for bare-metal programming in C</a>
+        </td>
+        <td class="posts-td posts-td-time">
+          <span class="post-meta">
+            <time datetime="2024-10-05 00:00:00 +0800">2024-10-05</time>
+          </span>
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+</html>
diff --git a/_site/blog/mosfet-switches/bjt.png b/_site/blog/mosfet-switches/bjt.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9858fa7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/_site/blog/mosfet-switches/bjt.png
diff --git a/_site/blog/mosfet-switches/index.html b/_site/blog/mosfet-switches/index.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ed63e0a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/_site/blog/mosfet-switches/index.html
@@ -0,0 +1,173 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+<html>
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8">
+    <title>MOSFETs as electronic switches</title>
+
+    <head>
+  <meta charset="utf-8">
+  <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1">
+  <title>MOSFETs as electronic switches</title>
+  <link rel="stylesheet" href="/assets/css/main.css">
+  <link rel="stylesheet" href="/assets/css/skeleton.css">
+</head>
+
+
+
+  </head>
+  <body>
+
+    <div id="nav-container" class="container">
+  <ul id="navlist" class="left">
+    
+    <li >
+      <a href="/" class="link-decor-none">hme</a>
+    </li>
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+      <a href="/blog/" class="link-decor-none">blg</a>
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+    </li>
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+  </ul>
+</div>
+
+
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+    <main>
+      <div class="container">
+        <div class="container-2">
+          <h2 class="center" id="title">MOSFETS AS ELECTRONIC SWITCHES</h2>
+          <h6 class="center">22 JUNE 2025</h5>
+          <br>
+          <div class="twocol justify"><p>Recently, I needed a low-power circuit for one of my battery-operated projects.
+Much of the system’s power savings depended on its ability to electronically
+switch off components, such as servos, that draw high levels of quiescent
+currents. My search for a solution led me to MOSFETs, transistors capable of
+controlling circuits operating at voltages far above their own.</p>
+
+<h2 id="acknowledgments">Acknowledgments</h2>
+
+<p>This article is a summary of what I learnt about using MOSFETs as switches.
+I’m not an electronics engineer, and this is not an authoritative guide. The
+circuits in this post must be considered within the narrow context in which
+I’ve used them. All credits for the schematics belong to <a href="https://electronics.stackexchange.com/users/292884/simon-fitch" class="external" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Simon Fitch</a>.</p>
+
+<h2 id="preamble">Preamble</h2>
+
+<p>For a typical MOSFET-based switch, we can connect a GPIO pin of a
+microcontroller to the gate of a logic-level N-channel MOSFET placed on the low
+side of the load and tie the gate and the drain pins of the MOSFET with a
+pull-down resistor. This would work as long as the power supplies of the
+microcontroller and the load don’t share a common ground. Things become more
+complicated when they do (e.g., controlling power to a component driven by the
+same microcontroller).</p>
+
+<p>In that scenario, the source potential visible to the load is the difference
+between the gate and the threshold potentials of the MOSFET. For example, when
+the gate and the threshold potentials are 3.3 V and 1.5 V, the potential the
+load sees is 1.8 V. So, to use a low-side N-channel MOSFET, we need the gate
+potential to be higher than the source potential, which may not always be
+practical. The alternative would be a hide-side switch.</p>
+
+<h2 id="p-channel-high-side-switch">P-channel high-side switch</h2>
+
+<p>The following schematic shows how a high-side P-channel MOSFET (M1) could
+switch power to a 6 V servo driven by a 3.3 V MCU.</p>
+
+<p><img src="p_high_side.png" alt="P-channel high-side switching circuit" /></p>
+
+<p>When the microcontroller outputs low, the M2 N-channel MOSFET stops conducting.
+The R1 resistor pulls the gate of the M1 P-channel MOSFET up to +6 V, switching
+the servo off. When the microcontroller outputs high on the GPIO pin, M2’s
+source-drain connection starts conducting, causing M1’s gate potential to drop
+to 0 V, which switches on power to the servo.</p>
+
+<h2 id="n-channel-high-side-switch">N-channel high-side switch</h2>
+
+<p>The P-channel high-side switch would be the typical architecture for our use
+case. However, if we have access to a potential high enough to safely raise the
+gate potential above the threshold such that their difference outputs the source
+potential required to drive the load, we can switch on the high side using an
+N-channel MOSFET:</p>
+
+<p><img src="n_high_side.png" alt="N-channel high-side switching circuit" /></p>
+
+<p>In the schematic, both M1 and M2 are N-channel MOSFETs. When the
+microcontroller output is low, M2 stops conducting. This causes the M1’s gate
+potential to rise above the threshold, turning the servo on. Conversely, a high
+output on the GPIO line switches M2 on, which lowers M1’s gate potential. This
+switches the servo off. The R2 pull-up resistor prevents the high impedance of
+the output pins at power-up from switching the servo on.</p>
+
+<p>Both topologies require M2 to act as a level converter between circuits
+containing the microcontroller and the servo, converting between 0 V and +6 V
+or +9 V. M2 is a low-power signal converter carrying less than a milliamp of
+current. The gate-source threshold voltage of M2 must be lower than the MCU’s
+supply voltage. 2N7000, 2N7002, and BSS138 are popular choices for M2.</p>
+
+<p>The D1 flyback diodes used in the two topologies safeguard the MOSFET from
+voltage spikes caused by inductive loads such as servos.</p>
+
+<h2 id="a-bjt-alternative">A BJT alternative</h2>
+
+<p>A Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) is a simpler, cheaper, and more widely
+available type of transistor that can be used as a switch.</p>
+
+<p><img src="bjt.png" alt="BJT architecture" /></p>
+
+<p>In the schematic, when the MCU outputs high, Q2 starts conducting. Q2 amplifies
+Q1’s base current. Unlike MOSFETs, which are voltage-driven, BJTs are driven by
+base current. Resistors R3 and R4 must be chosen carefully to output the
+desired base currents. <a href="https://teachmetomake.wordpress.com/how-to-use-a-transistor-as-a-switch/" class="external" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">“How to choose a
+transistor as a switch”</a> is an excellent guide on using BJTs as electronic 
+switches.</p>
+
+<h2 id="which-topology-to-choose">Which topology to choose?</h2>
+
+<p>The professional community appears to prefer MOSFETs over BJTs. MOSFETs are
+more efficient when the switch is on. However, they are more challenging to
+drive, especially with a 3.3 V MCU, due to the V<sub>GS</sub> potentials
+required to achieve specified R<sub>DS(on)</sub> values (i.e., to turn them on
+fully).</p>
+
+<p>N-channel MOSFETs have lower on-resistance values, making them more efficient
+than P-channel ones. They are also cheaper. However, they are harder to drive
+on the high side as their gate potential must be higher than the source
+potential. This often requires extra circuitry such as MOSFET drivers.</p>
+
+<h2 id="further-reading">Further reading</h2>
+
+<ul>
+  <li><a href="https://www.embeddedrelated.com/showarticle/98.php" class="external" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Different MOSFET
+topologies</a></li>
+  <li><a href="https://www.embeddedrelated.com/showarticle/809.php" class="external" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">How to read 
+MOSFET datasheets</a></li>
+  <li><a src="https://teachmetomake.wordpress.com/how-to-use-a-transistor-as-a-switch/" class="external" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">How to use a 
+transistor as a switch</a></li>
+  <li><a src="https://forum.digikey.com/t/guide-to-selecting-and-controlling-a-mosfet-for-3-3-vdc-logic-applications/42606" class="external" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Guide to 
+selecting and controlling a MOSFET for 3.3 VDC logic applications</a></li>
+  <li><a src="https://forum.digikey.com/t/driving-a-large-relay-from-a-3-3-vdc-microcontroller-using-an-npn-darlington-transistor/41751" class="external" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Driving a large 
+relay from a 3.3 VDC microcontroller using an NPN Darlington transistor</a></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+          <p class="post-author right">by W. D. Sadeep Madurange</p>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+    </main>
+
+    <div class="footer">
+  <div class="container">
+    <div class="twelve columns right container-2">
+      <p id="footer-text">&copy; ASCIIMX - 2025</p>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+
+  </body>
+</html>
diff --git a/_site/blog/mosfet-switches/n_high_side.png b/_site/blog/mosfet-switches/n_high_side.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c851768
--- /dev/null
+++ b/_site/blog/mosfet-switches/n_high_side.png
diff --git a/_site/blog/mosfet-switches/p_high_side.png b/_site/blog/mosfet-switches/p_high_side.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9f5397a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/_site/blog/mosfet-switches/p_high_side.png
diff --git a/_site/blog/neo4j-a-star-search/index.html b/_site/blog/neo4j-a-star-search/index.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0d918c7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/_site/blog/neo4j-a-star-search/index.html
@@ -0,0 +1,371 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+<html>
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8">
+    <title>Neo4J A* search</title>
+
+    <head>
+  <meta charset="utf-8">
+  <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1">
+  <title>Neo4J A* search</title>
+  <link rel="stylesheet" href="/assets/css/main.css">
+  <link rel="stylesheet" href="/assets/css/skeleton.css">
+</head>
+
+
+
+  </head>
+  <body>
+
+    <div id="nav-container" class="container">
+  <ul id="navlist" class="left">
+    
+    <li >
+      <a href="/" class="link-decor-none">hme</a>
+    </li>
+    <li class="active">
+      <a href="/blog/" class="link-decor-none">blg</a>
+    </li>
+    <li >
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+    </li>
+    <li >
+      <a href="/about/" class="link-decor-none">abt</a>
+    </li>
+    <li><a href="/feed.xml" class="link-decor-none">rss</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</div>
+
+
+
+    <main>
+      <div class="container">
+        <div class="container-2">
+          <h2 class="center" id="title">NEO4J A* SEARCH</h2>
+          <h6 class="center">14 SEPTEMBER 2025</h5>
+          <br>
+          <div class="twocol justify"><p>Back in 2018, we used <a href="https://neo4j.com/" class="external" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Neo4J</a> graph database to track the
+movement of marine vessels. We were interested in the shortest path a ship
+could take through a network of about 13,000 route points. Algorithms based on
+graph theory, such as A* search, provide optimal solutions to such problems.
+In other words, the set of route points lends itself well to a model based on
+graphs.</p>
+
+<p>A graph is a finite set of vertices, and a subset of vertex pairs (edges).
+Edges can have weights. In the case of vessel tracking, the route points form
+the vertices of a graph; the routes between them, the edges; and the distances
+between them are the weights. For different reasons, people are interested in
+minimizing (or maximizing) the weight of a path through a set of vertices. For
+instance, we may want to find the shortest path between two ports.</p>
+
+<p>Given such a graph, an algorithm like Dijkstra’s search could compute the
+shortest path between two vertices. In fact, this was the algorithm Neo4J
+shipped with at the time. One drawback of Dijkstra’s algorithm is that it
+computes all the shortest paths from the source to all other vertices before
+terminating at the destination vertex. The exhaustive nature of this search
+limited our search to about 4,000 route points.</p>
+
+<p>The following enhancement to Dijkstra’s search, also known as the A* search,
+employs a heuristic to steer the search in the direction of the destination
+more quickly. In the case of our network of vessels, which are on the earth’s
+surface, spherical distance is a good candidate for a heuristic:</p>
+
+<div class="language-plaintext highlighter-rouge"><div class="highlight"><pre class="highlight"><code>package org.neo4j.graphalgo.impl;
+
+import java.util.stream.Stream;
+import java.util.stream.StreamSupport;
+
+import org.neo4j.graphalgo.api.Graph;
+import org.neo4j.graphalgo.core.utils.ProgressLogger;
+import org.neo4j.graphalgo.core.utils.queue.IntPriorityQueue;
+import org.neo4j.graphalgo.core.utils.queue.SharedIntPriorityQueue;
+import org.neo4j.graphalgo.core.utils.traverse.SimpleBitSet;
+import org.neo4j.graphdb.Direction;
+import org.neo4j.graphdb.Node;
+import org.neo4j.kernel.internal.GraphDatabaseAPI;
+
+import com.carrotsearch.hppc.IntArrayDeque;
+import com.carrotsearch.hppc.IntDoubleMap;
+import com.carrotsearch.hppc.IntDoubleScatterMap;
+import com.carrotsearch.hppc.IntIntMap;
+import com.carrotsearch.hppc.IntIntScatterMap;
+
+public class ShortestPathAStar extends Algorithm&lt;ShortestPathAStar&gt; {
+    
+    private final GraphDatabaseAPI dbService;
+    private static final int PATH_END = -1;
+    
+    private Graph graph;
+    private final int nodeCount;
+    private IntDoubleMap gCosts;
+    private IntDoubleMap fCosts;
+    private double totalCost;
+    private IntPriorityQueue openNodes;
+    private IntIntMap path;
+    private IntArrayDeque shortestPath;
+    private SimpleBitSet closedNodes;
+    private final ProgressLogger progressLogger;
+    
+    public static final double NO_PATH_FOUND = -1.0;
+    
+    public ShortestPathAStar(
+        final Graph graph,
+        final GraphDatabaseAPI dbService) {
+
+        this.graph = graph;
+        this.dbService = dbService;
+
+        nodeCount = Math.toIntExact(graph.nodeCount());
+        gCosts = new IntDoubleScatterMap(nodeCount);
+        fCosts = new IntDoubleScatterMap(nodeCount);
+        openNodes = SharedIntPriorityQueue.min(
+            nodeCount,
+            fCosts,
+            Double.MAX_VALUE);
+        path = new IntIntScatterMap(nodeCount);
+        closedNodes = new SimpleBitSet(nodeCount);
+        shortestPath = new IntArrayDeque();
+        progressLogger = getProgressLogger();
+    }
+    
+    public ShortestPathAStar compute(
+        final long startNode,
+        final long goalNode,
+        final String propertyKeyLat,
+        final String propertyKeyLon,
+        final Direction direction) {
+
+        reset();
+
+        final int startNodeInternal = 
+            graph.toMappedNodeId(startNode);
+        final double startNodeLat =
+            getNodeCoordinate(startNodeInternal, propertyKeyLat);
+        final double startNodeLon = 
+            getNodeCoordinate(startNodeInternal, propertyKeyLon);
+
+        final int goalNodeInternal =
+            graph.toMappedNodeId(goalNode);
+        final double goalNodeLat = 
+            getNodeCoordinate(goalNodeInternal, propertyKeyLat);
+        final double goalNodeLon = 
+            getNodeCoordinate(goalNodeInternal, propertyKeyLon);
+
+        final double initialHeuristic = 
+            computeHeuristic(startNodeLat,
+                startNodeLon,
+                goalNodeLat,
+                goalNodeLon);
+
+        gCosts.put(startNodeInternal, 0.0);
+        fCosts.put(startNodeInternal, initialHeuristic);
+        openNodes.add(startNodeInternal, 0.0);
+
+        run(goalNodeInternal,
+            propertyKeyLat,
+            propertyKeyLon,
+            direction);
+
+        if (path.containsKey(goalNodeInternal)) {
+            totalCost = gCosts.get(goalNodeInternal);
+            int node = goalNodeInternal;
+            while (node != PATH_END) {
+                shortestPath.addFirst(node);
+                node = path.getOrDefault(node, PATH_END);
+            }
+        }
+        return this;
+    }
+    
+    private void run(
+        final int goalNodeId,
+        final String propertyKeyLat,
+        final String propertyKeyLon,
+        final Direction direction) {
+
+        final double goalLat = 
+            getNodeCoordinate(goalNodeId, propertyKeyLat);
+        final double goalLon =
+            getNodeCoordinate(goalNodeId, propertyKeyLon);
+
+        while (!openNodes.isEmpty() &amp;&amp; running()) {
+            int currentNodeId = openNodes.pop();
+            if (currentNodeId == goalNodeId) {
+                return;
+            }
+
+            closedNodes.put(currentNodeId);
+
+            double currentNodeCost = 
+                this.gCosts.getOrDefault(
+                    currentNodeId, 
+                    Double.MAX_VALUE);
+
+            graph.forEachRelationship(
+                currentNodeId,
+                direction,
+                (source, target, relationshipId, weight) -&gt; {
+                    double neighbourLat = 
+                        getNodeCoordinate(target, propertyKeyLat);
+                    double neighbourLon = 
+                        getNodeCoordinate(target, propertyKeyLon);
+                    double heuristic = 
+                        computeHeuristic(
+                            neighbourLat, 
+                            neighbourLon, 
+                            goalLat,
+                            goalLon);
+
+                    updateCosts(
+                        source,
+                        target,
+                        weight + currentNodeCost,
+                        heuristic);
+
+                    if (!closedNodes.contains(target)) {
+                        openNodes.add(target, 0);
+                    }
+                    return true;
+                });
+
+            progressLogger.logProgress(
+                (double) currentNodeId / (nodeCount - 1));
+        }
+    }
+    
+    private double computeHeuristic(
+        final double lat1,
+        final double lon1,
+        final double lat2,
+        final double lon2) {
+
+        final int earthRadius = 6371;
+        final double kmToNM = 0.539957;
+        final double latDistance = Math.toRadians(lat2 - lat1);
+        final double lonDistance = Math.toRadians(lon2 - lon1);
+        final double a = Math.sin(latDistance / 2)
+            * Math.sin(latDistance / 2)
+            + Math.cos(Math.toRadians(lat1))
+            * Math.cos(Math.toRadians(lat2))
+            * Math.sin(lonDistance / 2)
+            * Math.sin(lonDistance / 2);
+        final double c = 2
+            * Math.atan2(Math.sqrt(a), Math.sqrt(1 - a));
+        final double distance = earthRadius * c * kmToNM;
+        return distance;
+    }
+    
+    private double getNodeCoordinate(
+        final int nodeId,
+        final String coordinateType) {
+
+        final long neo4jId = graph.toOriginalNodeId(nodeId);
+        final Node node = dbService.getNodeById(neo4jId);
+        return (double) node.getProperty(coordinateType);
+    }
+    
+    private void updateCosts(
+        final int source, 
+        final int target, 
+        final double newCost,
+        final double heuristic) {
+
+        final double oldCost = 
+            gCosts.getOrDefault(target, Double.MAX_VALUE);
+
+        if (newCost &lt; oldCost) {
+            gCosts.put(target, newCost);
+            fCosts.put(target, newCost + heuristic);
+            path.put(target, source);
+        }
+    }
+    
+    private void reset() {
+        closedNodes.clear();
+        openNodes.clear();
+        gCosts.clear();
+        fCosts.clear();
+        path.clear();
+        shortestPath.clear();
+        totalCost = NO_PATH_FOUND;
+    }
+    
+    public Stream&lt;Result&gt; resultStream() {
+        return StreamSupport.stream(
+            shortestPath.spliterator(), false)
+                .map(cursor -&gt; new Result(
+                    graph.toOriginalNodeId(cursor.value),
+                    gCosts.get(cursor.value)));
+    }
+
+    public IntArrayDeque getFinalPath() {
+        return shortestPath;
+    }
+    
+    public double getTotalCost() {
+        return totalCost;
+    }
+
+    public int getPathLength() {
+        return shortestPath.size();
+    }
+    
+    @Override
+    public ShortestPathAStar me() {
+        return this;
+    }
+
+    @Override
+    public ShortestPathAStar release() {
+        graph = null;
+        gCosts = null;
+        fCosts = null;
+        openNodes = null;
+        path = null;
+        shortestPath = null;
+        closedNodes = null;
+        return this;
+    }
+    
+    public static class Result {
+
+        /**
+         * the neo4j node id
+         */
+        public final Long nodeId;
+
+        /**
+         * cost to reach the node from startNode
+         */
+        public final Double cost;
+
+        public Result(Long nodeId, Double cost) {
+            this.nodeId = nodeId;
+            this.cost = cost;
+        }
+    }
+}
+</code></pre></div></div>
+
+<p>The heuristic function is domain-specific. If chosen wisely, it can
+significantly speed up the search. In our case, we achieved a 300x speedup,
+enabling us to expand our search from 4,000 to 13,000 route points. The <a href="https://github.com/neo4j-contrib/neo4j-graph-algorithms/releases/tag/3.4.0.0" class="external" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">v3.4.0</a> of the
+Neo4J graph algorithms shipped with the A* search algorithm.</p>
+
+</div>
+          <p class="post-author right">by W. D. Sadeep Madurange</p>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+    </main>
+
+    <div class="footer">
+  <div class="container">
+    <div class="twelve columns right container-2">
+      <p id="footer-text">&copy; ASCIIMX - 2025</p>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+</div>
+
+
+  </body>
+</html>
diff --git a/_site/blog/suckless-software/index.html b/_site/blog/suckless-software/index.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ea91072
--- /dev/null
+++ b/_site/blog/suckless-software/index.html
@@ -0,0 +1,142 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+<html>
+  <head>
+    <meta charset="utf-8">
+    <title>How I manage Suckless software packages</title>
+
+    <head>
+  <meta charset="utf-8">
+  <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1">
+  <title>How I manage Suckless software packages</title>
+  <link rel="stylesheet" href="/assets/css/main.css">
+  <link rel="stylesheet" href="/assets/css/skeleton.css">
+</head>
+
+
+
+  </head>
+  <body>
+
+    <div id="nav-container" class="container">
+  <ul id="navlist" class="left">
+    
+    <li >
+      <a href="/" class="link-decor-none">hme</a>
+    </li>
+    <li class="active">
+      <a href="/blog/" class="link-decor-none">blg</a>
+    </li>
+    <li >
+      <a href="/projects/" class="link-decor-none">poc</a>
+    </li>
+    <li >
+      <a href="/about/" class="link-decor-none">abt</a>
+    </li>
+    <li><a href="/feed.xml" class="link-decor-none">rss</a></li>
+  </ul>
+</div>
+
+
+
+    <main>
+      <div class="container">
+        <div class="container-2">
+          <h2 class="center" id="title">HOW I MANAGE SUCKLESS SOFTWARE PACKAGES</h2>
+          <h6 class="center">30 NOVEMBER 2025</h5>
+          <br>
+          <div class="twocol justify"><p>Since <a href="https://suckless.org/" class="external" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">suckless</a> software requires users to modify the
+source code and recompile to customize, I need a way to maintain patches over
+the long term while retaining the ability to upgrade the software as new
+versions are released.</p>
+
+<h2 id="initial-setup">Initial setup</h2>
+
+<p>When using a suckless program, I usually begin by cloning the project and
+setting the remote URL to push a copy of the source code with my patches to my
+own git repository:</p>
+
+<div class="language-plaintext highlighter-rouge"><div class="highlight"><pre class="highlight"><code>git clone git://git.suckless.org/dwm
+git reset --hard &lt;tag&gt;
+git remote set-url --push origin git@git.asciimx.com:/repos/dwm
+</code></pre></div></div>
+
+<p>This way, I can pull updates from the upstream project whenever I want, while
+committing my changes to my own git repository. The git reset command aligns my
+branch head with a stable release before applying patches or installing the
+software.</p>
+
+<p>If all I want to do is reconfigure the software (e.g., change key bindings),
+which is what I need most of the time, the recommended approach is to modify
+the config.h file. If the config.h isn’t yet in the project, the following
+command generates it from the defaults and compiles the software using <code class="language-plaintext highlighter-rouge">make
+clean &lt;target&gt;</code> here <code class="language-plaintext highlighter-rouge">&lt;target&gt;</code> is the name of the application (e.g., dwm)
+found in the Makefile. I modify the resulting config.h file and run <code class="language-plaintext highlighter-rouge">make clean
+install</code> to install the software before committing and pushing my changes to my
+git repo.</p>
+
+<h2 id="dwm-and-slstatus">dwm and slstatus</h2>
+
+<p>Since dwm and slstatus are always running, <code class="language-plaintext highlighter-rouge">make install</code> will likely fail for
+them. The operating system will prevent the installer from replacing running
+executables with new ones. Hence, we must first stop the running instances of
+these programs (Mod + Shift + q). Then, switch to a tty (Ctrl + Alt + F1),
+log in, and change the directory to where dwm/slstatus is. We can run <code class="language-plaintext highlighter-rouge">make
+install</code> to install the software and switch back to the graphical session
+(Ctrl + Alt + F5).</p>
+
+<p>The key combinations for switching to the tty and back may differ across
+systems. The ones listed above are for OpenBSD.</p>
+
+<h2 id="subsequent-upgrades">Subsequent upgrades</h2>
+
+<p>When suckless releases a new version, I run <code class="language-plaintext highlighter-rouge">git pull --rebase</code> to fetch the
+upstream changes and rebase my patches on top of them. Because I tend to use
+stable versions, I perform another interactive rebase to drop the commits
+between the latest stable version tag and my patch before installing the
+software.</p>
+
+<p>Commit log before upgrading:</p>
+
+<div class="language-plaintext highlighter-rouge"><div class="highlight"><pre class="highlight"><code>dt236  My patch.
+3fkdf  Version 6.5.
+</code></pre></div></div>
+
+<p>Commit log after pulling:</p>
+
+<div class="language-plaintext highlighter-rouge"><div class="highlight"><pre class="highlight"><code>w467d  My patch.
+gh25g  A commit.
+g525g  Another commit.
+3fkdf  Version 6.6.
+vd425  Old commit.
+q12vu  Another old commit.
+3fkdf  Version 6.5.
+</code></pre></div></div>
+
+<p>Commit log after the interactive rebase:</p>
+
+<div class="language-plaintext highlighter-rouge"><div class="highlight"><pre class="highlight"><code>h57jh  My patch.
+3fkdf  Version 6.6.
+vd425  Old commit.
+q12vu  Another old commit.
+3fkdf  Version 6.5.
+</code></pre></div></div>
+
+<p>And finally, commit and push all the changes to my own git repository.</p>
+
+</div>
+          <p class="post-author right">by W. D. Sadeep Madurange</p>
+        </div>
+      </div>
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author	Sadeep Madurange <sadeep@asciimx.com>	2025-12-08 17:34:35 +0800
committer	Sadeep Madurange <sadeep@asciimx.com>	2025-12-08 21:05:19 +0800
commit	752a06ec0ebf20d6232b13f1ea53fe21fefcefbd (patch)
tree	690411afad8eb76216417a42de94135214cb2401 /_site/blog
parent	20b0a045a7dc78f9728837fe5a1be8cf12caae4e (diff)
download	www-752a06ec0ebf20d6232b13f1ea53fe21fefcefbd.tar.gz